| Frequently Asked Questions |
DNA PATERNITY TESTING – FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS DNA PATERNITY TESTING – FAQ’SWhat is a DNA Paternity test? Which individuals will require testing? Is there any age limit for a Paternity test? Is Maxxam the best laboratory for a DNA Paternity test? Where can I go to complete my Paternity test? Is DNA Paternity testing considered very accurate? What is the time required for completion of the Paternity test? What privacy laws protect my information and how confidential is your staff? How do I provide a sample for DNA Paternity testing? How do I go about ordering an at-home paternity collection kit? How reliable are the Paternity test results? What types of identification will be required at the time of testing? What do DNA results prove or disprove? Can the Paternity test results be used in a Court of Law? What about home testing? How will I get my results? How much will a Paternity test cost me? What is a DNA Paternity test? A Paternity test is based on the premise that an individual inherits one-half of their DNA from each biological parent. This involves the analysis of samples provided by the mother, child and alleged father. By testing the mother, one can determine which genetic markers are inherited from the mother and hence the remaining genetic markers then must originate from the father. Which individuals will require testing? A sample must be collected from both the child and the alleged father to perform a paternity test. DNA testing to confirm paternity or maternity can be conducted in the absence of a biological sample from the mother (motherless test) or father (fatherless test). When an individual is deceased or unavailable for testing, it may be possible to use other family members as substitute reference samples. Typically, these situations require the testing of additional genetic markers. Is there any age limit for a Paternity test? There is no age or time limit with DNA analysis. Since only a small sample is required, paternity testing can be conducted with samples from infants, including newborns right up to any age. Testing can be performed on individuals sampled weeks, months, years, or even, miles apart. A biological sample that is properly taken and stored is very stable. DNA samples and paternity test results can be maintained for years until the remaining parties provide a sample and the testing is completed. This provides clients with greater flexibility in scheduling individuals for sample collection, since DNA samples need not be collected at the same time or at the same place. Please note that prenatal testing is possible if it is required. Is Maxxam the best laboratory for a DNA Paternity test? Accreditation is the one and only way for a laboratory to give its clients confidence in the quality of the analyses performed. Maxxam was the first private laboratory in Canada to make this commitment to quality and in January 2000 was awarded its accreditation for DNA testing by the SCC. In addition to maintaining SCC accreditation, Maxxam was also audited and awarded accreditation by the FQS-I in August 2001. Maxxam offers over 35 years of laboratory experience in providing information and expert testimony as it relates to child custody, support, immigration eligibility, estate settlements, forensic investigations, independent DNA testing and consulting services.
With over 400 collection sites from coast to coast, you should have no problem finding a location to submit a sample. Maxxam also provides the service of mobile sample collection in certain locations. Our mobile collectors will contact our client directly to schedule a date and time to attend at the client's home, office or other location they suggest for collection of the required sample. For more information about a location near you, please call 1-877-706-7678 or email us. Is DNA Paternity testing considered very accurate? For confirmation or exclusion of identity in forensic or genetic relationship analysis (paternity, maternity, kinship), DNA testing is the most accurate and powerful technology currently available. A Paternity test compares the DNA of the alleged father and child to determine if they match at 50%of their DNA. If the DNA from the alleged father does not match that from the child, the alleged father is excluded as the biological father; this is reported as 0% probability of paternity. When the DNA does match, the alleged father is concluded to be the biological father of the child, typically at a minimum probability of paternity of 99.95% or higher. What is the time required for completion of the Paternity test? Typically, the turnaround time (TAT) for testing varies from approximately five to seven business days (from the time all samples are received at the laboratory). The amount of time required for testing will also depend on the amount of testing required and the difficulty involved in working with the sample(s). However, an advantage provided by PCR technology, which is the technology used at Maxxam for Paternity testing, is the potential for rapid TAT. For urgent matters, the TAT for analysis can be decreased to 72 hours from the time of sample receipt. What privacy laws protect my information and how confidential is your staff? As with other areas of clinical medicine or science, confidentiality is important in genetic testing. If anything, the confidentiality of genetic information may need to be guarded even more stringently than in the ordinary case. Our work is conducted in a secure environment and all aspects of your case will be treated in a private and confidential manner. On January 1, 2004, the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) came fully into effect. PIPEDA sets policy on how private Canadian businesses (with the exception of Provinces that have their own similar Privacy Law, i.e. Alberta, British Columbia and Quebec as it pertains to the collection, use and/or disclosure of personal information in the course of commercial activities. In response to PIPEDA, Canadian Forensic Laboratories such as the RCMP and Centre of Forensic Sciences (CFS) adopted policies whereby DNA profiles were no longer included with forensic reports. This is because they felt that inclusion contravened a persons right to protect their “genetic information”. Maxxam also followed suit, and removed profiles from both forensic and paternity reports so that we maintained one, consistent policy on the issue. All staff in the Human DNA Department have signed confidentiality agreements and are required to undergo security clearance as conducted by Public Works and Government Services Canada and the RCMP. How do I provide a sample for DNA Paternity testing? You may provide a DNA Paternity test sample by scheduling an appointment at a certified collection site. When you arrive for your scheduled appointment, a qualified technician will collect a DNA sample through what is known as a buccal swab method. Collection is simply done by gently rubbing a swab inside the mouth for a short period of time. This is a painless and routine procedure. If you plan to do the collection of the DNA sample at home (Home Test – Paternity Test), then you or another person will collect the sample by using the same buccal swab method. That is, by taking the provided buccal swab and rubbing it against the inside of the mouth cheek area for a short period of time (approximately 15 seconds). How do I go about ordering an at-home Paternity collection kit? You may order a Home Collection Kit by phoning one of our Client Service Agents at 1-877-706-7678, available Monday to Friday from 7:30 am to 5:30 pm eastern standard time. Alternatively, you may also download and return our Home Collection Paternity requisition form:  Home Collection (Non-Legal) DNA Paternity Test
DNA testing is the most conclusive method available to prove relationships and allows proof of parentage at a level of certainty that is beyond reasonable doubt. To date, none of Maxxam’s DNA results have been successfully challenged or overturned in a court of law. What types of identification will be required at the time of testing? We require either one piece of photo identification or two pieces of non-photo id for all adults over the age of 18. Minors are required to have one piece of (non-photo) government issued identification. What do DNA results prove or disprove? For genetic relationship analysis, DNA testing can exclude a suspected person from being the source of a biological sample or an alleged father from being the true biological father of a child. For paternity testing, the statistical analysis yields a likelihood of paternity called the paternity index. This is determined from the frequency in the general population of the genetic markers belonging to the alleged father, which match the obligate paternal DNA make-up of the child. Sufficient testing is conducted until a minimum cumulative paternity index of 1000 (probability of paternity of at least 99.9%) is achieved. Typically, the probability of paternity exceeds 99.95%. Can the Paternity test results be used in a Court of Law? What about home testing? Only results from samples collected at a certified Maxxam collection facility are eligible for use in a Court of Law. At the time of sample collection, a strict protocol is followed that will require identification, pictures, fingerprints and the completion of a consent form that will be dated and signed. Home collection samples cannot be used in a Court of Law. How will I get my results? All information is kept strictly confidential and reports are mailed only to those individuals involved in the testing or their representative(s). Facsimile reporting can be done under special circumstances. Telephone reporting is not permitted. How much will a paternity test cost me? Paternity testing costs may vary depending on the number of individuals required for testing. At Maxxam we have an all-inclusive price that includes everything that our customers need to complete paternity testing. Many other testing companies will quote a price that does not include items such as sample collection or shipping. These additional costs can quickly add up to much more than you anticipated. With our all-inclusive price you can be assured that there are no hidden costs to deal with later on. At Maxxam our all-inclusive pricing includes:
Is Maxxam the best laboratory for me to use for DNA testing for Immigration purposes? What type of privacy laws are there that protect my information and how confidential is your staff? How do I provide a sample for DNA analysis? How reliable are the results? Who is required to submit a sample? What types of identification will my relatives or myself need to submit at the time of testing? How long does testing take? Why are we being asked to test both parents when immigration is only questioning one relationship? How can I ensure that my samples or the samples from my applicant will not be tampered with? Is Maxxam the best laboratory for me to use for DNA testing for Immigration purposes? Accreditation is the one and only way for a laboratory to give its clients confidence in the quality of the analyses performed. Understanding this, Maxxam was the first private laboratory in Canada to make this commitment to quality and in January 2000 was awarded its accreditation for DNA testing by the SCC. In addition to maintaining SCC accreditation, Maxxam was also audited and awarded accreditation by the FQS-I in August 2001. As well as these accreditations, Maxxam offers over 30 years of laboratory experience in providing information and expert testimony as it relates to child custody/support, immigration eligibility, estate settlements, forensic investigations, independent DNA testing and consulting services. What type of privacy laws are there that protect my information and how confidential is your staff? Our work is conducted in a secure environment and all aspects of your case will be treated in a confidential manner. Our staff is bound by the Privacy laws in Canada, which protect all individuals and their information from being shared. As well, all Maxxam staff have signed confidentiality agreements. How do I provide a sample for DNA analysis? One of our qualified technicians will take what is known as a buccal swab. This is simply done by rubbing a swab inside the side of your cheek. It is a very painless and routine procedure. How reliable are the results? DNA profiling testing is the most conclusive method available to prove relationships and allows proof of parentage at levels of certainty that are beyond reasonable doubt. Who is required to submit a sample? The Embassy will issue a letter identifying which relationships they want verified. What types of identification will my relatives or myself need to submit at the time of testing? The Canadian sponsor will need to provide valid photo identification. Sponsors will also need to have a Polaroid picture taken at the time of the sample collection. There is a consent form that is also completed and a fingerprint of the applicant is inked onto the consent form. For the applicant that is overseas, he or she must submit two passport type photographs along with any government type of documents that will prove identity. How long does testing take? Once we have received all of the samples in a case, we are normally able to complete our testing and submit a report after approximately seven to ten working days. Very occasionally, it is necessary to repeat part of the scientific process, which may result in a slight delay in reporting. Please note that we have no control over the timing of overseas sampling as required by the CIC and we are unable to start our testing until we have received all samples. Why are we being asked to test both parents when immigration is only questioning one relationship? The test is always more conclusive in a Parent-Child relationship if you have both Parents tested. The fee is the same whether one parent or both are tested. How can I ensure that my samples or the samples from my applicant will not be tampered with? Only labs authorized by the Embassy will collect the samples overseas. In many cases, a government officer will be assigned to collect the sample. An Embassy officer will be present to witness the sample collection and they are generally in charge of sealing and shipping the samples. In Canada, the sample collection is completed at one of our contracted collection sites. These sites are accredited and are required to follow Maxxam’s specific procedures that ensure all samples are sealed and secure.
What is DNA? What is DNA Testing? Why Use DNA Testing? What is the DNA Profiling Procedure? What do DNA Results Prove or Disprove? What is the Time Required to Complete the Test? Who is Maxxam Analytics? Why choose Maxxam Analytics for DNA testing? What kind of Casework does Maxxam typically work on? How do you approach Forensic Casework? How do I Arrange for DNA Testing? What is DNA? DNA is the acronym for a molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid. Often described as "the basic building block of life", or the "blueprint of the body", it is the genetic material of all organisms, which is responsible for determining the inherited characteristics of an organism. Established at conception, when the father’s sperm cell fertilizes the mother’s egg cell, an individual inherits one-half of his/her DNA from each biological parent. In humans, DNA is found in most cells of the body. A large percentage of DNA is the same from person to person because similar biological processes must occur in all people. However, a small percentage of each person’s DNA is highly variable between different people, and every individual, with the exception of identical twins, has a unique DNA make-up that defines that person’s genetic characteristics. It is the person’s unique DNA make-up that allows DNA testing to accurately and powerfully identify that individual. What is DNA Testing? DNA testing is an effective comparative identification tool. While the most publicized application of this technology has been in the forensic identification of perpetrators of violent crimes (homicides, sexual assaults, etc.), it is similarly powerful in its ability to define genetic relationships; that is, in its ability to resolve issues central to questioned maternity/paternity cases, immigration eligibility and establishing lineage. Whether the testing is conducted for forensic analysis or the analysis of genetic relationships, DNA testing involves extracting sufficient amounts of DNA from biological samples that are to be compared, and generating DNA profiles from each extracted sample. These profiles are then compared to determine whether they do or do not match. Profiles that do not match definitely come from different individuals. Profiles that do not match but convey similar attributes may be indicative of a genetic relationship. Profiles that match may have originated from the same individual. Thus, while DNA testing is a powerful tool to help convict the guilty, it is similarly powerful to help exonerate the innocent. For more information about DNA, click here. Why Use DNA Testing? To include or exclude an individual in forensic or genetic relationship analysis, DNA testing is the most accurate and powerful technology currently available. Forensic Analysis Since DNA is contained in all nucleated cells of the human body and all nucleated cells of the body contain the same DNA, forensic DNA analysis can be conducted between different tissue sources (i.e., blood can be compared to semen, saliva can be compared to hair, etc.) Accordingly, irrespective of tissue type, forensic analysis may involve the comparison of a DNA profile from any known or reference biological sample(s) with that of any unknown or questioned biological sample(s) or the comparison of two unknown or questioned samples. With current technology, even samples that are of poor quality or of limited quantity can be profiled. Maxxam Analytics uses validated procedures to extract DNA from various samples of unknown origin including:
What is the DNA Profiling Procedure? Maxxam’s laboratory procedure is based on state-of-the-art polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology and employs three major steps: DNA extraction, amplification and electrophoresis. Extraction involves the removal and purification of DNA from a biological sample. This is accomplished by chemical treatment which ruptures cells and separates DNA from other unwanted cellular components. Once extracted, a thermostable enzyme, specifically designed DNA primers and a machine called a thermocycler are used to replicate (amplify) targeted regions of the DNA molecule. The targeted regions are those which are highly variable from person to person. This variation in the DNA is the result of variable numbers of short tandem repeats (STRs) that give rise to amplified fragments that vary with respect to their length. Multiple cycles of this amplification step are performed which results in the production of millions of copies of each STR. In this way, the PCR process enzymatically generates millions of DNA copies, thereby making the analysis of limited samples possible. Amplified DNA fragments are then sorted according to their relative length by gel electrophoresis using an automated DNA sequencer. The product to be analyzed and interpreted is a DNA profile (or bar code-like pattern) specific to the starting biological sample. DNA profiles from reference and unknown samples are then compared for similarities or differences in their patterns and matches or non-matches, respectively, are determined. What do DNA Results Prove or Disprove? For forensic or genetic relationship analysis, DNA testing can exclude absolutely a suspected person from being the source of a biological sample or an alleged father from being the true biological father of a child. Conversely, if an exclusion is not found by the DNA testing, the suspected person or alleged father, cannot be excluded from, and is therefore consistent with being the source of a sample or the true biological father of the child, respectively. Subsequent statistical analysis determines the weight to be given to the result. For forensic testing, statistical analysis determines the frequency of the obtained DNA profile in the general population. As this frequency becomes increasingly more rare, the likelihood of the reference and unknown sample having come from the same person increases. A frequency of 1 in 1,000,000 implies that the DNA match observed is 1,000,000 times more likely to have occurred if the unknown sample originates from the donor of the reference sample, as compared to a randomly chosen, unrelated individual from the general population. What is the Time Required to Complete the Test? For forensic cases, the turnaround time (TAT) is typically 3 weeks. For urgent matters, the TAT for analysis can be decreased to 3 or 5 business days from the time of sample receipt; however, a premium will be applied to the cost of analysis. All information is kept strictly confidential and reports are mailed only to specified individuals or their representative(s). Who is Maxxam Analytics? Maxxam Analytics, with annual revenues in excess of $120 million, is one of the largest multi-disciplinary independent analytical services companies in Canada. Today, Maxxam operates modern laboratory facilities totaling more than 300,000 square feet, in 12 Canadian cities, and employs more than 1,200 highly trained people. Maxxam’s six major areas of testing are:
Higher Quality: Maxxam uses state-of-the-art PCR-based technology and facilities to conduct DNA testing that meets or exceeds the international standards required of forensic laboratories for criminal casework analysis. Experience: Dr. Wayne Murray, Maxxam’s DNA laboratory manager and former head of the DNA Unit at the Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto, is one of Canada’s most experienced DNA experts, having testified more than 70 times as an expert witness in forensic cases involving DNA evidence. As a team, Maxxam’s scientists and technical staff have reported thousands of Canadian forensic/paternity/maternity cases and have provided expert witness testimony on many occasions. Fast: Results are available in as little as 72 hours. Cost-Effective: Maxxam has applied 35 years of experience in forensic testing to the design of an efficient DNA testing laboratory with technology, facilities and information systems that deliver high quality service at lower cost. What kind of casework does Maxxam typically work on? Our forensic biology casework consists primarily of three distinct types: criminal, corporate and forensic paternity. There are numerous cases in which Maxxam plays a vital role in the analysis and identification of DNA. Examples of two case scenarios can be reviewed by clicking here. How do you approach forensic casework? Maxxam approaches forensic casework using a very systematic and disciplined plan. To review Maxxam's approach to forensic casework, click here. How do I Arrange for DNA Testing? Please contact Technical Service at: 1-877-706-7678 ext. 712 or contact us by email at dnainfo@maxxam.ca |